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Techniques of translation from some references:
Vinay, J.-P., & Darbelnet, J. (1995). Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. London: Prentice Hall.
Molina, L., & Albir, A. H. (2002). "Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach." Meta: Journal des traducteurs, 47(4), 498–512.
Baker, M. (2018). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge.
1. Literal Translation
Translating word-for-word while maintaining grammar and meaning.
Example: She is reading a book. → Dia sedang membaca buku.
2. Borrowing
Taking words directly from the source language without translation.
Example: Computer → Komputer
3. Calque
Translating phrases or expressions literally, maintaining the structure.
Example: Skyscraper → Pencakar langit
4. Transposition
Changing the grammatical structure while keeping the meaning.
Example: He is a good teacher. → Dia adalah guru yang baik.
5. Modulation
Changing the perspective or viewpoint of the text for natural equivalence.
Example: I have no idea. → Saya tidak tahu.
6. Adaptation
Replacing a cultural element with one suitable for the target culture.
Example: Thanksgiving → Hari raya lokal (or skipped if culturally irrelevant).
7. Equivalence
Using an equivalent expression in the target language.
Example: Break a leg! → Semoga sukses!
8. Reduction
Condensing the meaning of the source text.
Example: She passed away peacefully in her sleep. → Dia meninggal dengan tenang.
9. Amplification
Adding information to clarify or provide context.
Example: The Senate → Senat (dewan legislatif Amerika Serikat)
10. Generalization
Using a more general term in the target language.
Example: He bought a convertible. → Dia membeli mobil.
11. Particularization
Using a more specific term in the target language.
Example: Vehicle → Mobil
12. Description
Explaining a term or concept in the target language.
Example: Cheesecake → Kue keju yang lembut dan manis.
13. Substitution
Replacing linguistic elements with non-verbal ones, such as gestures.
Example: Nodding → Mengangguk.
14. Nominalization
Turning verbs or adjectives into nouns.
Example: He is teaching. → Dia sedang mengajar.
15. Compensation
Adding omitted meaning in another part of the text.
Example: She smiled but said nothing. → Dia hanya tersenyum tanpa berkata apa-apa.
16. Discursive Creation
Using a completely new phrase for creative purposes.
Example: Finger Lickin’ Good (KFC) → Jagonya Ayam!
17. Cultural Substitution
Replacing culture-specific items with culturally appropriate equivalents.
Example: Pancakes → Serabi
18. Literal Replacement
Replacing numbers, symbols, or formats with target language equivalents.
Example: 5 miles → 8 kilometer.
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